Scientific texts & academic writing
Scientific texts: the guide
Scientific texts differ from journalistic or literary texts through clear rules: traceable argumentation, transparent sources and an objective, precise style. In short, they follow their own academic writing conventions. This overview explains to students what makes a scientific text, which types there are, how to structure one, how to cite correctly and how to avoid plagiarism. It applies whether you write in English or German at a university in Germany or elsewhere in Europe.
What is a scientific text?
A scientific text is a written examination of a research topic that meets the following criteria:
- Traceability: every argument is based on sources and can be checked
- Objectivity: no value judgement without justification, and no first person (disputed; common in English-speaking academia)
- Precision: defined terms, clear statements, no ambiguity
- Common thread: a coherent structure that builds a chain of argument
- Work with sources: all sources used are cited and listed in the bibliography
Types of scientific texts
| Type of text | Length | Occasion |
|---|---|---|
| Essay | 3 to 8 pages | argumentative discussion of a thesis |
| Term paper (Hausarbeit) | 10 to 25 pages | coursework for the semester, written independently |
| Seminar paper (Seminararbeit) | 15 to 30 pages | in-depth study of a seminar topic |
| Bachelor's thesis | 30 to 60 pages | first final thesis, written independently |
| Master's thesis | 60 to 100 pages | in-depth research work |
| Dissertation | 150 to 300+ pages | multi-year research contribution, doctorate |
| Scientific paper | 8 to 20 pages | publication in a journal |
| Exposé (research proposal) | 3 to 10 pages | advance outline of a thesis or doctorate |
| Review / literature review | 15 to 40 pages | presenting the state of research |
Different requirements apply depending on the type of text. You will find detailed guides on our pages for bachelor's theses, master's theses, term papers and seminar papers and dissertation editing.
Structure of a scientific text
The classic three-part structure applies to almost all academic texts:
- Introduction (~10 %): research question, relevance, state of research, method, outline
- Main part (~80 %): theory, methodology, analysis, discussion
- Conclusion (~10 %): summary, answer to the research question, outlook
Empirical papers often follow the IMRaD scheme: Introduction · Methods · Results · and Discussion. In the humanities and social sciences, an argumentative, discursive structure prevails.
Academic style: tense, passive voice, precision
For detailed revision, look at clear sentence structure in academic papers, and at unsuitable words and blanket lists of banned words. You can also check sentences you already have against guides on academic phrasing with AI, suitable sentence openers and proper paraphrasing.
- Tense: mostly present tense; methods and results sections often use the past tense or present perfect
- Objective tone: no "I think ...", but "It can be shown ..." or "The data indicate ..."
- Active vs. passive: active sentences are clearer, while method descriptions often use the passive
- Technical terms: introduce them, do not assume them
- Quotations: short, precise, and only where the original is better than a paraphrase
- Hedging: cautious wording ("possibly", "suggests") instead of absolute statements
Citation systems at a glance
Which citation system you use depends on your subject and your university. The most important ones:
| Style | Where it is used | Example in the text |
|---|---|---|
| APA 7 | psychology, social sciences, education | (Müller, 2024, p. 42) |
| Harvard | business, humanities and social sciences | (Müller 2024: 42) |
| MLA | language and literature studies | (Müller 42) |
| Chicago | history, humanities (USA) | ¹ Müller, Studium, 42. |
| German citation style (Deutsche Zitierweise) | law, history (Germany) | Müller, Studium, 2024, p. 42. |
| IEEE | engineering, computer science | [1] |
| Vancouver | medicine, life sciences | (1) |
Official style guides: APA Style · MLA Style · The Chicago Manual of Style.
Types of sources & peer review
- Primary sources: original material (studies, interviews, historical documents)
- Secondary sources: discussion of primary sources (textbooks, monographs)
- Tertiary sources: summaries (Wikipedia, encyclopaedias), which can only be cited to a limited extent in an academic context
- Peer-reviewed journals: double review ensures quality (e.g. Nature, Science, ZfS, KZfSS)
- Grey literature: research reports, working papers, conference papers without peer review
Avoiding plagiarism
Plagiarism is the most serious breach of scientific standards and can lead to the revocation of a degree (see the prominent German cases of Guttenberg, Schavan and Giffey).
- Full plagiarism: copying whole texts without a source
- Partial plagiarism: copying individual passages without marking them
- Structural plagiarism: taking over the structure of an argument
- Translation plagiarism: translating foreign-language texts without a source
- Self-plagiarism: reusing your own texts that you have already submitted
How to avoid plagiarism: cite consistently, mark paraphrases, and cross-check with a plagiarism check before you hand in. You will find more on our page on avoiding plagiarism and in the notes on academic integrity.
10 % discount for students
With the code STUDI10 you save on the plagiarism check and the AI detector.
AI tools in your studies: allowed or not?
Generative AI such as ChatGPT, Claude, Gemini and Copilot has changed academic writing. The legal and examination-law position is still evolving. Key points:
- Most universities require a declaration of authorship (Eigenständigkeitserklärung) with an AI clause: you may only submit what you have written yourself
- AI-assisted research and brainstorming are usually allowed, but generating whole passages of text usually is not
- Universities increasingly use tools for AI detection (e.g. at the University of Hohenheim and FH Münster)
- Rulings such as the one by the Kassel Administrative Court on ChatGPT in a bachelor's thesis show that concealing AI use has consequences
Tools for academic writing
- Reference management: Zotero (free), Citavi, Mendeley, EndNote
- Writing environment: Microsoft Word, LibreOffice, LaTeX (for natural sciences and mathematics), Overleaf
- Research: Google Scholar, JSTOR, Springer Link, ScienceDirect, Web of Science
- Language improvement: DeepL Write, Grammarly, LanguageTool, Duden Mentor
- Plagiarism and AI check: plagiarism check, AI detector, and a comparison of tools
External resources for academic work
- apastyle.apa.org: APA Style reference
- Duden language guide (for German texts)
- openthesaurus.de: German synonyms and words
- DWDS: the Digital Dictionary of the German Language
- Deutsche Nationalbibliothek (German National Library)
- open-access.network: open access information platform
Frequently asked questions about scientific texts
What distinguishes a scientific text from a journalistic one?+
Scientific texts argue in a traceable way, support every statement with sources and follow a fixed structure. They are written in an objective, factual style for a specialist audience, whereas journalistic texts are broader, often more pointed and more narrative.
Which citation style is the right one?+
There is no "right" citation style: what counts is the guidelines of your chair or university. Common choices are APA (social sciences), Harvard (business), MLA (literature), Chicago (history) and the German citation style (law, history).
What percentage of a text may be quoted?+
There is no fixed percentage limit. As a rule of thumb, use at most 10 to 15 % direct quotations, and the rest should be your own argumentation or paraphrases. Plagiarism tools often set thresholds between 5 % and 20 %.
Can I cite Wikipedia?+
Wikipedia counts as a tertiary source and is not accepted as citable in most subjects. Use Wikipedia instead as a starting point to find original sources (primary or secondary literature).
May I use ChatGPT for my term paper?+
The rules depend on your university. Using it for brainstorming, structuring help or style is usually allowed, but generating whole passages of text without declaring it usually is not. Check the declaration of authorship and, if necessary, your examinations office.
How many sources do I need for a term paper?+
As a rule of thumb, about one source per page, but at least 8 to 15 sources for a 15-page term paper. A bachelor's thesis typically uses 30 to 60 sources, a master's thesis 60 to 120.
How does corrected.eu help me with scientific texts?+
We offer proofreading, editing, plagiarism check and AI detector for every kind of scientific text, from term papers to dissertations. With the code STUDI10 you save 10 % as a student.
corrected.eu supports you with every scientific text, with professional proofreading, editing, plagiarism check and AI detector.